사람되기/인문학

(인문학) Shanghai Cooperation Organisation 上海合作组织 (상하이 협력 기구)

밝은하늘孤舟獨釣 2016. 12. 2. 11:57

한글 출처: https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%81%ED%95%98%EC%9D%B4_%ED%98%91%EB%A0%A5_%EA%B8%B0%EA%B5%AC


상하이 협력 기구

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
상하이 협력 기구
上海合作组织
Шанхайская организациясотрудничества
Shanghai Cooperation Organization.svg
결성일2001년 6월 15일
형태국제 기구
본부중화인민공화국 중화인민공화국 베이징 시
회원
공식 언어중국어
러시아어

상하이 협력 기구(-協力機構, 중국어 간체: 上海合作组织 (上合组织), 정체: 上海合作組織 (上合組織), 병음: Shànghǎi Hézuò Zǔzhī (Shànghé Zǔzhī), 상하이허쭤쭈즈 (상허쭈즈)[*], 러시아어: Шанхайская организация сотрудничества (ШОС) 샨하이스카야 오르가니자치야 소트루드니체스트바 (샤오에스)[*], 문화어: 상하이협조기구, 상해협조기구)는 러시아, 우즈베키스탄, 중화인민공화국, 카자흐스탄, 키르기스스탄, 타지키스탄 6개국 정상들이 2001년 7월 14일에 설립한 국제 기구이다. 우즈베키스탄을 제외한 나머지 5개 국가는 원래 1996년에 형성된 상하이 파이브(Shanghai Five)의 회원국이었으며 우즈베키스탄이 2001년에 합류하면서 상하이 파이브는 상하이 협력 기구로 개명되었다. 상하이 협력 기구가 북대서양 조약 기구(NATO)를 견제하기 위해 만들어 졌다고 보는 시각도 있다.

현재 중화인민공화국과 러시아, 카자흐스탄, 우즈베키스탄, 키르기스스탄, 타지키스탄 6개국은 정회원국, 아프가니스탄과 이란, 몽골, 벨라루스[4] 4개국은 준회원국으로 활동하고 있으며 스리랑카, 터키는 협력 파트너, 투르크메니스탄, 독립 국가 연합과 동남아시아 국가 연합은 초청 국가 및 기구이다. 2017년 7월 10일, 인도와 파키스탄은 정식 회원국이 될 예정이다.[1][5] 또한 아르메니아, 아제르바이잔, 캄보디아, 네팔 등은 대화 상대국으로 지정되었다. [6]

같이 보기[편집]

각주[편집]

  1. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 “India, Pakistan become full SCO members”. 《The Hindu》. 2015년 7월 11일. 2015년 7월 10일에 확인함. will technically become a member by next year after completion of certain procedures
  2. 이동↑ [1]
  3. 이동↑ [2]
  4. 이동↑ [3]
  5. 이동↑ [4]
  6. 이동↑ [5]

바깥 고리[편집]




중문 출처: https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87

上海合作组织[编辑]

维基百科，自由的百科全书
「SCO」重定向至此。關於与此名称相似的其他条目，詳見「SCO (消歧义)」。
上海合作组织
俄文: Шанхайская организация сотрудничества
SCO logo.jpg
徽章
Shanghai Cooperation Organization.svg
      成员       新加入国家 (2017年)
簡稱SCO / ShOS
成立時間1996年4月26日
類型共同安全，政治，经济组织
總部中国北京
會員
官方語言
汉语、俄语
秘书长
阿利莫夫·拉希德·库特比金诺维奇
副秘书长
伊曼多索夫·萨贝尔·阿伊达尔别科维奇
王开文
苏尔坦巴耶夫·捷米尔别克·贾克希雷科维奇
诺斯罗夫·阿齐兹·阿布杜拉耶维奇
網站www.sectsco.org

上海合作组织（简称上合组织；俄语：Шанхайская организация сотрудничества，縮寫：ШОС；英语：The Shanghai Cooperation Organization，縮寫：SCO）是中华人民共和国、俄羅斯、哈萨克斯坦、吉爾吉斯斯坦、塔吉克斯坦、乌兹別克斯坦、巴基斯坦和印度等8個國家組成的一個國際組織，另外有4个观察员国：蒙古国、伊朗、阿富汗和白俄羅斯。[1]工作語言為漢語和俄羅斯語。[2]成员国总面积为3435.7万平方公里，即欧亚大陆总面积的3/5，人口約30亿，为世界总人口的3/7。这是中国第2次在其境内成立政府间国际组织[3]，及首次以其城市命名，宣称以“上海精神”解决各成员国间的边境问题。

上海合作組織現有兩個常設機搆，分別是設於北京的祕書處，以及設於乌兹別克斯坦首都塔什干的地区反恐怖机构。

官方强调上海合作组织不是封闭的军事政治集团，因而與北約等無法類比，该组织防务安全始终遵循公开、开放和透明的原则，奉行不结盟、不对抗、不针对任何其他国家和组织的原则，一直倡导互信、互利、平等、协作的新安全观。[4]組織的出現對世界權力的平衡起到了積極的作用。

指导原则[编辑]

上海合作组织以“互信、互利、平等、协商、尊重多种文明、谋求共同发展”为基本内容的“上海精神”作为相互关系的原则，以及不结盟、不针对其他国家和地区、对外开放的原则。

上海合作组织的宗旨是加强各成员国之间的相互信任与睦邻友好；鼓励各成员国在政治、经贸、科技、文化、教育、能源、交通、环保及其它领域的有效合作；共同致力于维护和保障地区的和平、安全与稳定；建立民主、公正、合理的国际政治经济新秩序。

上海合作组织每年举行一次成员国国家元首正式会晤，定期举行政府首脑会晤，轮流在各成员国举行。

官方名称[编辑]

上海合作组织官方工作语言是汉语和俄语。组织的正式名称用两种语言（括号内是缩写）是：

简化字：
俄语：
  • 西里尔字母: Шанхайская организация сотрудничества (ШОС)
  • 罗马化: Shankhayskaya organizatsiya sotrudnichestva (ShOS)

成员[编辑]

主条目：上海合作组织成员国
截止到2014年，上海合作组织成员国以及观察员国

成员国[5]

日期国家扩大
1996年4月26日 中国创始国
 哈萨克斯坦
 吉尔吉斯斯坦
 俄羅斯
 塔吉克斯坦
2001年6月15日 乌兹别克斯坦第一次扩大
2017年 巴基斯坦第二次扩大
2017年 印度第二次扩大

成員國領導人[编辑]

成員國國家元首政府首腦
中華人民共和國
國家主席 習近平
國務院總理 李克強
哈薩克斯坦
總統 納扎爾巴耶夫
總理 馬西莫夫
吉爾吉斯斯坦
總統 阿坦巴耶夫
總理 萨里耶夫
俄羅斯
總統 普京
總理 梅德韋傑夫
塔吉克斯坦
總統 拉赫蒙
總理 阿基洛夫
烏茲別克斯坦
總統 米爾澤亞耶夫
總理 米爾則亞耶夫
印度
總統 慕克吉
總理 莫迪
巴基斯坦
總統 侯賽因
總理 謝里夫

历史[编辑]

上海合作组织的前身是上海五国会晤机制。2001年6月14日至15日，上海五国元首在上海举行第六次会晤，乌兹别克斯坦以完全平等的身份加入“上海五国”。15日，六国元首举行首次会议，并签署了《上海合作组织成立宣言》，上海合作组织正式成立。此次峰会还签署了《打击恐怖主义、分裂主义和极端主义上海公约》。

Wikisource-logo.svg
  • 2001年6月15日上海合作组织在上海正式成立。
  • 2002年6月7日上海合作组织成员国第二次首脑会晤在俄羅斯聖彼得堡举行，会上签署了《上海合作组织宪章》、《关于地区反恐怖机构的协定》和《上海合作组织成员国元首宣言》三个文件。
Wikisource-logo.svg
维基文库中相关的原始文献：
  • 2003年5月29日上海合作組織成員國第三次首腦會晤在俄羅斯莫斯科舉行，簽署了《上海合作組織成員國元首宣言》[10]。中华人民共和国駐俄羅斯大使张德广被任命為本組織首任秘書長。
  • 2003年8月6日至12日上海合作組織首先舉行在哈萨克斯坦和中国境内的多國聯合反恐軍事演習[11]。
  • 2004年1月15日上海合作組織秘書處在中华人民共和国首都北京舉行成立儀式。
  • 2004年6月17日上海合作組織峰會在烏茲別克首都塔什干舉行。會上包括有中华人民共和国主席胡錦濤做了主题为《加強務實合作共謀和平發展》的演讲，各國亦簽署《上海合作組織成員國元首塔什干宣言》。同日，設在塔什干的「上海合作組織地區反恐機構正式啟動。蒙古国獲接纳为观察员。
  • 2005年7月4日，在哈萨克斯坦首都阿斯塔纳举行的首脑会议上，六國元首簽署了《上海合作组织成员国元首宣言》。呼籲美國等制定撤離駐中亞軍事基地的期限。伊朗、巴基斯坦和印度獲接纳为观察员。白俄罗斯正在争取加入。
  • 2006年6月15日，上海合作组织成员国理事会会议在中国城市上海举办，主要议题是关于加强当代信息安全，通过合作加大各国保障信息安全的力度。
  • 2007年8月16日，上海合作组织元首理事会会议在吉尔吉斯斯坦首都比什凯克举行。维护上海合作组织范围内的安全与稳定将成为本次会议各方关注的焦点。鉴于国际信息安全问题日益突出，本次峰会将通过上海合作组织成员国保障国际信息安全行动计划。
  • 2009年5月15日，莫斯科舉行組織外長會議。俄羅斯外長拉夫罗夫在當天外長會議結束後對媒體表示，目前，很多國家在爭取與上合組織進行合作。因此，上合組織特別制定了一個對話夥伴地位。他透露，各國外長商定將向下月參加葉卡捷琳堡峰會的各國元首建議，給予白俄羅斯和斯里蘭卡上合組織對話夥伴國地位。[12]
  • 2014年9月12日，上海合作组织成员国元首理事会第十四次会议发表《上海合作组织成员国元首理事会会议新闻公报》。元首们批准了《给予上海合作组织成员国地位程序》和《关于申请国加入上海合作组织义务的备忘录范本》修订案，以推进完善本组织活动的法律基础。并决定加快建立组织发展基金和开发银行。
  • 2015年7月10日，巴基斯坦和印度獲接纳为成员，同時給予亞美尼亞、亞塞拜然、尼泊爾和柬埔寨上合組織對話夥伴國地位。。

“上海五国”年度元首会晤[编辑]

日期国家举办地
11996年4月25日－26日中华人民共和国中华人民共和国上海[13]
21997年4月24日俄羅斯俄罗斯联邦莫斯科
31998年7月3日哈薩克哈萨克斯坦共和国阿拉木圖
41999年8月24日－26日吉爾吉斯吉尔吉斯斯坦共和国比什凯克
52000年7月3日－5日塔吉克斯坦塔吉克斯坦共和国杜尚别[14]

上海合作组织高级会议[编辑]

年度峰会
日期国家举办地
12001年6月14日－15日中华人民共和国中国上海
22002年6月7日俄羅斯俄罗斯圣彼得堡
32003年5月28日－29日俄羅斯俄罗斯莫斯科
42004年6月17日烏茲別克乌兹别克斯坦塔什干
52005年7月5日哈薩克哈萨克斯坦阿斯塔纳
62006年6月14日－15日中华人民共和国中国上海
72007年8月16日吉爾吉斯吉尔吉斯斯坦比什凯克
82008年8月28日塔吉克斯坦塔吉克斯坦杜尚别[15]
92009年6月15日－16日俄羅斯俄罗斯叶卡捷琳堡[16]
102010年6月10日－11日烏茲別克乌兹别克斯坦塔什干
112011年6月15日哈薩克哈萨克斯坦阿斯塔纳
122012年6月6日－7日中华人民共和国中国北京[17]
132013年9月13日吉爾吉斯吉尔吉斯斯坦比什凯克
142014年9月11日－12日塔吉克斯坦塔吉克斯坦杜尚别[18]
152015年7月9－10日俄羅斯俄罗斯乌法
162016年6月23－24日烏茲別克乌兹别克斯坦塔什干[19]
总理理事会
日期国家举办地
12001年9月哈薩克哈萨克斯坦阿拉木图
22003年9月23日中华人民共和国中国北京
32004年9月23日吉爾吉斯吉尔吉斯斯坦比什凯克
42005年10月26日俄羅斯俄罗斯莫斯科
52006年9月15日塔吉克斯坦塔吉克斯坦杜尚别
62007年11月2日烏茲別克乌兹别克斯坦塔什干
72008年10月30日哈薩克哈萨克斯坦阿斯塔纳
82009年10月14日中华人民共和国中国北京[20]
92010年11月25日塔吉克斯坦塔吉克斯坦杜尚别[21]
102011年11月7日俄羅斯俄罗斯圣彼得堡
112012年12月5日吉爾吉斯吉尔吉斯斯坦比什凯克[22]
122013年11月29日烏茲別克乌兹别克斯坦塔什干
132014年12月14－15日哈薩克哈萨克斯坦阿斯塔纳
142015年12月14－15日中华人民共和国中国郑州[23]
152016年吉爾吉斯吉尔吉斯斯坦比什凯克[24]

图片[编辑]

联合军演[编辑]

新加入成員國[编辑]

  • 巴基斯坦及印度：早在2000年就递交了加入上海五国边境的合作组织的声明，但成员国认为巴基斯坦给予阿富汗境内的塔利班伊斯兰政府支持，而这正是违背了组织的反恐宗旨，所以被拒绝。而后，阿富汗与巴基斯坦政府发生了巨大的改变，巴基斯坦在加快了反恐工作，再次澄清了成为上合正式会员的意愿。上海合作组织表示要在现有的六国慎重考虑之后才能做出扩展的决定。中国支持巴基斯坦成为正式会员，而俄罗斯参照有争端的土耳其、希腊同时加入北约模式，认为巴基斯坦和印度须一同加入。而印度则更是希望与美国和北约组织巩固关系，印度在上合中的主要目的是为了抵消敌对国巴基斯坦在上合与中亚地区的战略优势，2015年7月10日兩國皆獲准加入上海合作组织。

未来增扩[编辑]

上海合作组织现有的观察员国家有蒙古国、伊朗、阿富汗和白俄羅斯，其中蒙古国、伊朗正申请成为正式会员。

  •  伊朗 ：同巴基斯坦一样有着积极的升级为正式会员的意愿，申请加入[27]。伊朗希望通过上合来抵制美国自2001年在中亚及西南亚（中东）地区的军事扩展。伊朗的历史盟国塔吉克斯坦表示了支持，[28]但其他的成员国，尤其是中国和俄罗斯认为伊朗应当事先解决伊朗与国际原子能机构的核问题[29]。
  •  蒙古 ：中国和俄罗斯都已声明同意蒙古国成为正式会员，但蒙古國希望能夠邀請日本為觀察國[30]。
  •  阿富汗 ：2012年6月6日至7日，上海合作组织成员国元首理事会会议在北京举行。决定给予阿富汗伊斯兰共和国上合组织观察员国地位，但是由于阿富汗境内仍然有大量北约驻军，因此目前而言阿富汗加入上海合作组织的可能性是微乎其微的[31]。
  •  白俄羅斯 ：申请成为观察员，但俄罗斯認為其為“纯粹的欧洲国家”而反对[32]，不過在白俄羅斯現今被接納為上合的對話夥伴關係甚至於是觀察員的身份，表示未來加入上海合作组织的可能性也增加不少，俄羅斯也一反之前的態度轉而支持白俄參與該組織。
  •  塞爾維亞 ：塞尔维亚激进党敦促政府尝试申请加入上海合作组织以拉近和俄罗斯的关系，但有觀察家認為以加入歐盟為目標的塞尔维亚加入該組織的機會不大，就算想加入可能也會同白俄羅斯那样被拒絕。
  •  美國 ：申请成为观察员，不過遭拒絕[33]，即使放寬加入條件，除了地理因素外，美國和中俄之間的意識型態差距和加入後組織權利的失衡都會是個大問題，因此未來美國加入上合的可能完全不存在。
  •  土库曼斯坦 ：俄罗斯曾邀请总统列席该组织峰会，所以有人认为土库曼斯坦与该组织有着非同一般的关系，不過與土库曼近鄰的中亞四國都已經加入該組織了，因此一般認為土库曼獲準加入的可能性是目前所有國家中最高的。
  •  朝鲜、  韩国 和  日本 ：基本上目前朝鮮半島上的南北韓和日本政府目前都沒有表態是否會加入該組織，朝鲜因為與中國的盟邦關係是目前三國政府中加入可能性最高的，但目前沒有表態加入的意願，而南韓與日本目前都是美國在亞洲的盟友故加入該組織機率不大，尤其日本在歷史和領土爭端上與中俄兩國都有些情結存在，而韓日兩國的加入也可能被其他國家視之美國對其組織變相的監視，因此估计目前几乎都不可能加入该组织。
  •  土耳其 ：2012年6月，上海合作組織成員國元首理事會第十二次會議（北京峰会）上，土耳其申請成为上海合作組織對話伙伴国，获批准。[34]雖然土耳其以加入歐盟為目標，但中國等國一直積極邀請土耳其加入該組織，然而2015年敘利亞內戰爆發，上合會成員國之一的俄羅斯和土耳其就此事件產生矛盾，加上土耳其以侵犯領空為由炸毀俄羅斯戰機都讓兩國關係雪上加霜，土耳其能否加入此組織成了未知數。另外，土耳其一直对中国境内的泛突厥主义（例如东突厥斯坦独立运动）抱持同情甚至是支持的态度，因此几乎可以说土耳其馬上被上合组织接纳的可能性微乎其微。
  •  埃及 ：對加入該組織有正面回應，但自2011年的茉莉花革命後局勢不穩定可能會使該國能否加入上合會產生變數，另外即使加入條件放寬，跟白俄一樣地理位置不在亞洲的埃及能否加入也是個未知數。[35]
  •  斯里蘭卡 ：2009年和白俄一起被給予對話國的地位，雖獲俄羅斯支持但一般認為斯里蘭卡能否加入上合會可能必須看印度當局的臉色再決定。
  •  亞美尼亞 及  阿塞拜疆 ：兩國於2015年獲得對話夥伴國的地位，但兩國也因為納戈爾諾-卡拉巴赫主權爭議而數度交惡再加上亞美尼亞和土耳其關係緊張，這些區域紛爭沒有解決一般被認為不利於加入上合組織，加上這兩個高加索小國未來加入歐盟的可能性也不小，因此短期之內被接納為上合組織成員國的可能性目前並不高。
  •  柬埔寨 ：2015年是首個獲得上合對話夥伴國地位的東協國家，柬國和中國之間關係向來非常緊密，政局穩定和經濟持續成長，因此預料加入上合組織是指日可待的事，同時柬國的加入可能對鄰近較反中的越南、菲律賓或是其他親美的東協國家構成壓力。
  •  尼泊尔 ：2015年是繼斯里蘭卡後第二個獲得上合對話夥伴國地位的南亞國家，尼國雖然跟中國關係不錯，但近年來和印度關係十分緊張，印度極有可能會抵制尼國加入上合組織，加上2015年發生的百年地震後的重建問題預料要加入上合組織可能會是條漫漫長路。
  •  以色列 ：由於伊朗正積極準備加入上合組織，兩國關係不睦眾所周知，伊朗有可能會遊說其他上合成員國不要接受以色列的入會申請，另一方面，同日本和南韓一樣，以色列跟美國之間關係也非常密切，能否加入上合變數頗大。[36][37]
  •  叙利亚 ：目前該國局勢混亂，加上伊斯蘭國占領北部大片土地，一般認為問題沒有解決前加入上合的可能性很低。[38]

参考文献[编辑]

  1. ^ 上海合作组织简介，上海合作组织官方网站
  2. ^ 上海合作组织宪章
  3. ^ 首个在中国境内成立的政府间国际组织为国际竹藤组织，总部位于北京市望京
  4. ^ 中国驻俄罗斯大使刘古昌就上海合作组织成员国“和平使命－2007”联合反恐军事演习、上合组织成员国元首比什凯克峰会、中俄元首会晤举行新闻发布会（实录），中华人民共和国外交部官方网站，2007年8月10日
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 The Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Shanghai Cooperation Organization. [2012-09-18].
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 India, Pakistan edge closer to joining SCO security bloc. 论坛快报. 2016-06-24 [2016-06-24].
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 SCO accepts Afghanistan as observer, Turkey dialogue partner. 新华社. 2012年6月7日 [2012-06-07].
  8. ^ Belarus gets observer status in Shanghai Cooperation Organization. 白俄罗斯国家通讯社. 2015-07-10 [2015-08-08].
  9. ^ 上海合作组织峰会. 中华人民共和国外交部. [2016-08-08].
  10. ^ 上海合作组织成员国签署元首宣言（全文）
  11. ^ 上海合作组织成员国举行联合军演 反恐唱主角,人民网，2003年8月6日。
  12. ^ 上合組織外長會議在莫斯科舉行，國際在線，2009-05-16 00:10:31 截取
  13. ^ 中、俄、哈、吉、塔五国会晤，中国外交部官方网站，2000年11月7日
  14. ^ 吉中合作，吉尔吉斯共和国驻华大使馆
  15. ^ 上海合作组织秘书长努尔加利耶夫接受俄罗斯报采访，上海合作组织官方网站，2008年3月1日
  16. ^ 上海合作组织秘书长努尔加利耶夫接受俄罗斯报采访，上海合作组织官方网站，2008年3月1日
  17. ^ 上合组织：安全合作与外溢效应. 新华网. 2012年6月13日.
  18. ^ 上海合作组织成员国元首峰会将在杜尚别举行，上海合作组织官方网站，2014年9月2日
  19. ^ Uzbekistan to host 16th SCO summit in 2016
  20. ^ http://www.voanews.com/english/2009-10-14-voa14.cfm
  21. ^ SCO Heads of Government Council meets in Beijing
  22. ^ SCO Meeting Expected to Boost Cooperation Among Members. The Gazette of Central Asia (Satrapia). 12月2, 2012.
  23. ^ 上海合作组织总理理事会将在郑州举行，2015年12月09日
  24. ^ Kyrgyzstan to host next SCO Prime Ministers' meeting in 2016
  25. ^ “和平使命-2007”联合军演新闻报道
  26. ^ 和平使命2014
  27. ^ 伊朗正式申请加入上海合作组织，中国新闻网，2008年3月25日
  28. ^ 塔吉克斯坦欢迎伊朗加入上海合作组织，伊朗伊斯兰共和国通讯社，2008年4月16日
  29. ^ 专家：伊朗加入上合组织条件还未成熟，新华网，2008年3月26日
  30. ^ 上合組織擴員展望：誰將是第七個正式成員？. 多維新聞. [2016-08-08].
  31. ^ http://www.sectsco.org/CN/show.asp?id=500
  32. ^ The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation acquires military characterKommersant
  33. ^ Shanghai surprise，卫报，2006年6月16日
  34. ^ http://www.sectsco.org/CN/show.asp?id=500
  35. ^ 埃及外长：不排除埃及可能成为上合组织正式成员国，KAZINFORM，2015年07月27日
  36. ^ 习主席欧亚之行：“上海精神”推动上合组织实现新跨越，熊猫频道，2016年06月22日
  37. ^ Syria, Israel, Egypt willing to join SCO's activity - president's special envoy. Interfax. 2016-06-23 [2016-06-25].
  38. ^ Syria, Egypt may join Shanghai Cooperation Organization as observers — diplomat. TASS. 2015-06-05 [2016-06-25].

外部链接[编辑]

参见[编辑]




영문 출처: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation


Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Coordinates: 39°57′16.43″N 116°28′19.50″E

Shanghai Cooperation Organization
Simplified Chinese: 上海合作组织
Russian: Шанхайская Организация Сотрудничества
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (logo).svg
Logo
Shanghai Cooperation Organization.svg
  Members   Acceding States (2017)
AbbreviationSCO / ShOS
Formation26 April 1996
TypeMutual security, political, economic organisation
HeadquartersBeijing, China
Membership
Official language
Chinese, Russian
Secretary General
Rashid Olimov
Deputy Secretaries General

Mikhail Alekseyevich Konarovskiy
Anvar Djamaletdinovich Nasyrov

Juyin Hong
Parviz Davlatkhodjayevich Dodov
Websitewww.sectsco.org

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), or Shanghai Pact,[1] is a Eurasian political, economic, and military organisation which was founded in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. These countries, except for Uzbekistan had been members of the Shanghai Five, founded in 1996; after the inclusion of Uzbekistan in 2001, the members renamed the organisation. on July 10, 2015, the SCO decided to admit India and Pakistan as full members.

India and Pakistan signed the memorandum of obligations on 24 June 2016 at Tashkent, thereby starting the formal process of joining the SCO as full members. The acceptance process will take some months, by which they are expected to become full members by the next meeting at Astana in 2017.[2]

Official names[edit]

The official working languages of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization are Chinese and Russian. The official names of the organization in the two languages (abbreviations in parentheses) are:

Simplified Chinese:

Russian:

  • Cyrillic: Шанхайская Организация Сотрудничества (ШОС)
  • Romanisation: Shankhayskaya organizatsiya sotrudnichestva (ShOS)

Membership[edit]

Main article: Member states of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

Member States[3]

DateCountryEnlargement
26 April 1996 ChinaFounders
 Kazakhstan
 Kyrgyzstan
 Russia
 Tajikistan
15 June 2001 UzbekistanFirst Enlargement

Origins[edit]

The Shanghai Five grouping was created 26 April 1996 with the signing of the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions in Shanghai by the heads of states of Kazakhstan, the People's Republic of China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan. According to political scientist Thomas Ambrosio, one aim was to ensure that liberal democracycould not gain ground in these countries.[6] On 24 April 1997, the same countries signed the Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border Regions in a meeting in Moscow.[7]

Russian President Vladimir Putin, Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev, Chinese President Jiang Zemin, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev, and Tajik President Emomali Rakhmonov, at one time the leaders of the Shanghai Five.

Subsequent annual summits of the Shanghai Five group occurred in Almaty (Kazakhstan) in 1998, in Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan) in 1999, and in Dushanbe (Tajikistan) in 2000. At the Dushanbe summit, members agreed to "oppose intervention in other countries' internal affairs on the pretexts of 'humanitarianism' and 'protecting human rights;' and support the efforts of one another in safeguarding the five countries' national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, and social stability."[8]

In 2001, the annual summit returned to Shanghai. There the five member nations first admitted Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Five mechanism (thus transforming it into the Shanghai Six). Then all six heads of state signed on 15 June 2001, the Declaration of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, praising the role played thus far by the Shanghai Five mechanism and aiming to transform it to a higher level of cooperation. on 16 July 2001, Russia and the PRC, the organisation's two leading nations, signed the Treaty of Good-Neighbourliness and Friendly Cooperation.

In June 2002, the heads of the SCO member states met in Saint Petersburg, Russia. There they signed the SCO Charter which expounded on the organisation's purposes, principles, structures and form of operation, and established it in international law.

Its six full members account for 60% of the land mass of Eurasia and its population is a quarter of the world's. With observer states included, its affiliates account for about half of the world's population.

In July 2005, at its fifth and watershed summit in Astana, Kazakhstan, with representatives of India, Iran, Mongolia and Pakistan attending an SCO summit for the first time, the president of the host country, Nursultan Nazarbayev, greeted the guests in words that had never before been used in any context: "The leaders of the states sitting at this negotiation table are representatives of half of humanity".[9]

By 2007 the SCO had initiated over twenty large-scale projects related to transportation, energy and telecommunications and held regular meetings of security, military, defence, foreign affairs, economic, cultural, banking and other officials from its member states.

The SCO has established relations with the United Nations, where it is an observer in the General Assembly, the European Union, Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN), the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Organisational structure[edit]

Structure of the SCO.png

The Council of Heads of State is the top decision-making body in the SCO. This council meets at the SCO summits, which are held each year in one of the member states' capital cities. The current Council of Heads of State consists of:

The Council of Heads of Government is the second-highest council in the organisation. This council also holds annual summits, at which time members discuss issues of multilateral cooperation. The council also approves the organisation's budget. The current Council of Heads of Government consists of:

The Council of Foreign Ministers also hold regular meetings, where they discuss the current international situation and the SCO's interaction with other international organisations.[10]

The Council of National Coordinators coordinates the multilateral cooperation of member states within the framework of the SCO's charter.

The Secretariat of the SCO is the primary executive body of the organisation. It serves to implement organisational decisions and decrees, drafts proposed documents (such as declarations and agendas), function as a document depository for the organisation, arranges specific activities within the SCO framework, and promotes and disseminates information about the SCO. It is located in Beijing. The current SCO Secretary-General is Dmitry Fyodorovich Mezentsev of Russia, appointed to the office of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Secretary-General on 7 June 2012, to hold this position from January 1, 2013 to December 31, 2015.[11]

The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), headquartered in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, is a permanent organ of the SCO which serves to promote cooperation of member states against the three evils of terrorism, separatism and extremism. The Head of RATS is elected to a three-year term. Each member state also sends a permanent representative to RATS.[12]

Activities[edit]

Cooperation on security[edit]

The SCO is primarily centered on its member nations' Central Asian security-related concerns, often describing the main threats it confronts as being terrorism, separatism and extremism. However evidence is growing that its activities in the area of social development of its member states is increasing fast.[citation needed][13][unreliable source?]

At 16–17 June 2004 SCO summit, held in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, the Regional Antiterrorism Structure (RATS) was established. on 21 April 2006, the SCO announced plans to fight cross-border drug crimes under the counter-terrorism rubric.[14]

Grigory Logninov claimed in April 2006 that the SCO has no plans to become a military bloc. Nonetheless he argued that the increased threats of "terrorism, extremism and separatism" make necessary a full-scale involvement of armed forces.[15]

In October 2007, the SCO signed an agreement with the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), in the Tajik capital Dushanbe, to broaden cooperation on issues such as security, crime, and drug trafficking.[16] Joint action plans between the two organisations are planned to be signed by early 2008 in Beijing.[17]

The organisation is also redefining cyberwarfare, saying that the dissemination of information "harmful to the spiritual, moral and cultural spheres of other states" should be considered a "security threat". An accord adopted in 2009 defined "information war", in part, as an effort by a state to undermine another's "political, economic, and social systems".[18]

Military activities[edit]

SCO leaders at Peace Mission 2007. Hu Jintao, Vladimir Putin, Nursultan Nazarbayev and Islam Karimov

Over the past few years, the organisation's activities have expanded to include increased military cooperation, intelligence sharing, and counterterrorism.[19]

There have been a number of SCO joint military exercises. The first of these was held in 2003, with the first phase taking place in Kazakhstan and the second in China. Since then China and Russia have teamed up for large-scale war games in 2005 (Peace Mission 2005), 2007 and 2009, under the auspices of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. More than 4,000 soldiers participated at the joint military exercises in 2007 (known as "Peace Mission 2007") which took place in Chelyabinsk Russia near the Ural Mountains, as was agreed upon in April 2006 at a meeting of SCO Defence Ministers.[20][21] Russian Defence Minister Sergei Ivanovsaid that the exercises would be transparent and open to media and the public. Following the war games' successful completion, Russian officials began speaking of India joining such exercises in the future and the SCO taking on a military role. Peace Mission 2010, conducted September 9–25 at Kazakhstan's Matybulak training area, saw over 5,000 personnel from China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan conduct joint planning and operational maneuvers.[22]

The SCO has served as a platform for larger military announcements by members. During the 2007 war games in Russia, with leaders of SCO member states in attendance including Chinese President Hu Jintao, Russia's President Vladimir Putin used the occasion to take advantage of a captive audience: Russian strategic bombers, he said, would resume regular long-range patrols for the first time since the Cold War. "Starting today, such tours of duty will be conducted regularly and on the strategic scale", Putin said. "Our pilots have been grounded for too long. They are happy to start a new life".

On June 4, 2014, in the Tajik capital Dushanbe, the idea was brought up to merge the SCO with the Collective Security Treaty Organization. It is still being debated.

Economic cooperation[edit]

All SCO members but China are also members of the Eurasian Economic Community. A Framework Agreement to enhance economic cooperation was signed by the SCO member states on 23 September 2003. At the same meeting the PRC's Premier, Wen Jiabao, proposed a long-term objective to establish a free trade area in the SCO, while other more immediate measures would be taken to improve the flow of goods in the region.[23][24] A follow up plan with 100 specific actions was signed one year later, on 23 September 2004.[25]

On 26 October 2005, during the Moscow Summit of the SCO, the Secretary General of the Organisation said that the SCO will prioritise joint energy projects; such will include the oil and gas sector, the exploration of new hydrocarbon reserves, and joint use of water resources. The creation of an Inter-bank SCO Council was also agreed upon at that summit in order to fund future joint projects. The first meeting of the SCO Interbank Association was held in Beijing on 21–22 February 2006.[26][27] On 30 November 2006, at The SCO: Results and Perspectives, an international conference held in Almaty, the representative of the Russian Foreign Ministry announced that Russia is developing plans for an SCO "Energy Club".[28] The need for this "club" was reiterated by Moscow at an SCO summit in November 2007. Other SCO members, however, have not committed themselves to the idea.[29] However, on 28 August 2008 summit it was stated that "Against the backdrop of a slowdown in the growth of world economy pursuing a responsible currency and financial policy, control over the capital flowing, ensuring food and energy security have been gaining special significance".[30]

At the 2007 SCO summit Iranian Vice President Parviz Davudi addressed an initiative that has been garnering greater interest and assuming a heightened sense of urgency when he said, "The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation is a good venue for designing a new banking system which is independent from international banking systems".[31]

The address by Putin also included these comments:

"We now clearly see the defectiveness of the monopoly in world finance and the policy of economic selfishness. To solve the current problem Russia will take part in changing the global financial structure so that it will be able to guarantee stability and prosperity in the world and to ensure progress.
"The world is seeing the emergence of a qualitatively different geo-political situation, with the emergence of new centers of economic growth and political influence.
"We will witness and take part in the transformation of the global and regional security and development architectures adapted to new realities of the 21st century, when stability and prosperity are becoming inseparable notions."[32]
Leaders present at the SCO summit in Yekaterinburg, Russia in 2009.

On 16 June 2009, at the Yekaterinburg Summit, China announced plans to provide a US$10 billion loan to SCO member states to shore up the struggling economies of its members amid the global financial crisis.[33] The summit was held together with the first BRIC summit, and the China-Russia joint statement said that they want a bigger quota in the International Monetary Fund.[34]

Cultural cooperation[edit]

Cultural cooperation also occurs in the SCO framework. Culture ministers of the SCO met for the first time in Beijing on April 12, 2002, signing a joint statement for continued cooperation. The third meeting of the Culture Ministers took place in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, on 27–28 April 2006.[35][36]

An SCO Arts Festival and Exhibition was held for the first time during the Astana Summit in 2005. Kazakhstan has also suggested an SCO folk dance festival to take place in 2008, in Astana.[37]

Summits[edit]

Summit of Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan) in 2007.

According to the Charter of the SCO, summits of the Council of Heads of State shall be held annually at alternating venues. The locations of these summits follow the alphabetical order of the member state's name in Russian.[38] The charter also dictates that the Council of Heads of Government (that is, the Prime Ministers) shall meet annually in a place decided upon by the council members. The Council of Foreign Ministers is supposed to hold a summit one month before the annual summit of Heads of State. Extraordinary meetings of the Council of Foreign Ministers can be called by any two member states.[38]

List of summits[edit]

Heads of State
DateCountryLocation
14 June 2001 ChinaShanghai
7 June 2002 RussiaSaint Petersburg
29 May 2003 RussiaMoscow
17 June 2004 UzbekistanTashkent
5 July 2005 KazakhstanAstana
15 June 2006 ChinaShanghai
16 August 2007 KyrgyzstanBishkek
28 August 2008 TajikistanDushanbe
15–16 June 2009 RussiaYekaterinburg
10–11 June 2010 UzbekistanTashkent[39]
14–15 June 2011 KazakhstanAstana[40]
6–7 June 2012 ChinaBeijing
13 September 2013 KyrgyzstanBishkek
11–12 September 2014 TajikistanDushanbe
9–10 July 2015 RussiaUfa
23–24 June 2016 UzbekistanTashkent[41]
7–8 June 2017 KazakhstanAstana
Heads of Government
DateCountryLocation
September 2001 KazakhstanAlmaty
23 September 2003 ChinaBeijing
23 September 2004 KyrgyzstanBishkek
26 October 2005 RussiaMoscow
15 September 2006 TajikistanDushanbe
2 November 2007 UzbekistanTashkent
30 October 2008 KazakhstanAstana
14 October 2009 ChinaBeijing[42]
25 November 2010 TajikistanDushanbe[43]
7 November 2011 RussiaSaint Petersburg
5 December 2012 KyrgyzstanBishkek[44]
29 November 2013 UzbekistanTashkent
14–15 December 2014 KazakhstanAstana
14–15 December 2015 ChinaZhengzhou
2-3 November 2016 KyrgyzstanBishkek

Future membership possibilities[edit]

In June 2010, the SCO approved the procedure of admitting new members, though new members have yet to be admitted.[45] Several states, however, participate as observers, some of whom have expressed interest in becoming full members in the future. The implications of Iran joining the organization has been given much thought academically.[46] In early September 2013 Armenian Prime Minister Tigran Sargsyan said during his meeting with his Chinese counterpart that Armenia would like to obtain an observer status in the SCO.[47]

Except for Afghanistan, the observers are moving towards being accorded full member status.[48][49] Meanwhile, in 2012 Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Belarus, Nepal and Sri Lanka applied for observer status within the organization.[50] Egypt[51] and Syria have also submitted applications for observer status,[52] while Egypt, Israel,[53][54] [55]Maldives and Ukraine[56] have applied for dialogue partner status.[57][58]

Current observers[edit]

Putin with representatives from Iran and Mongolia, observers in the SCO, at a meeting of the Council of Heads of Government in 2005.
  •  Afghanistan received observer status at the 2012 SCO summit in Beijing, China on June 6, 2012.[4]
  •  Belarus was granted dialogue partner status in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) in 2009, and later gained observer status in 2015.[59] In 2008, Belarus applied for partner status in the organisation and was promised Kazakhstan's support towards that goal.[citation needed] However, Russian Defence Minister Sergei Ivanov voiced doubt on the probability of Belarus' membership, saying that Belarus was a purely European country.[60] Despite this, Belarus was accepted as a Dialogue Partner at the 2009 SCO Summit in Yekaterinburg, and after applying in 2012, was granted observer status in 2015.[5]
  •  India Russia has encouraged India to join the organisation as a full-time member, because they see it as a crucial future strategic partner.[61][62] China has also welcomed India's accession to the SCO.[63] India applied for membership in September 2014,[64] and was approved for membership by the SCO in July 2015.[65] It signed a memorandum of obligations on 24 June 2016 at Tashkent to join SCO to join as a full-fledged member. It is expected to formally accede to the organization by 2017.[2]
  •  Iran has observer status in the organisation, and applied for full membership on 24 March 2008.[66] However, because it was under sanctions levied by the United Nations at the time, it was blocked from admission as a new member. The SCO stated that any country under U.N. sanctions could not be admitted.[45] After the UN sanctions were lifted, Chinese president Xi Jinping announced its support for Iran's full membership in SCO during a state visit to Iran in January 2016.[67]
  •  Mongolia became the first country to receive observer status at the 2004 Tashkent Summit. Pakistan, India and Iran received observer status at the 2005 SCO summit in Astana, Kazakhstan on 5 July 2005.
  •  Pakistan Pakistan applied for full membership in 2006.[68] Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf argued in favour of its qualifications to join the organisation during a joint summit with China in 2006. Russia publicly endorsed Pakistan's bid in 2011.[69][70] At the SCO Summit in 2014, China also expressed support for Pakistan's application for full membership.[71] Pakistan's membership was approved by the SCO in July 2015.[65] It signed a memorandum of obligations on 24 June 2016 at Tashkent to join SCO to join as a full-fledged member. It is expected to formally accede to the organization by 2017.[2]

Dialogue Partner[edit]

Afghan President Hamid Karzai at an SCO summit in 2004.

The position of Dialogue Partner was created in 2008 in accordance with Article 14 of the SCO Charter of 7 June 2002. This article regards Dialogue Partner as a state or an organisation who shares the goals and principles of the SCO and wishes to establish relations of equal mutually beneficial partnership with the Organisation.[72]

  •  Sri Lanka was granted dialogue partner status in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) at the group's 2009 summit in Yekaterinburg.[59][73]
  •  Turkey, a member of NATO, was granted dialogue partner status in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) at the group's 2012 summit in Beijing.[4] Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has stated that he has discussed the possibility of abandoning Turkey's European Union membership candidacy in return for full membership in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.[74] This was reinfored again, after a series of tension between Turkey and the European Union in 21 November 2016. [75] Two days after that, in 23 November 2016, Turkey is granted chairman of the energy club of SCO for the 2017 period. It's the first non full member country to be the chairman of a club in the organisation.

Relations with the West[edit]

Western media observers believe that one of the original purposes of the SCO was to serve as a counterbalance to NATO and in particular to avoid conflicts that would allow the United States to intervene in areas bordering both Russia and China.[76][77] In addition, while not a member state, the President of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad used his speeches at the SCO to make verbal remarks towards the United States.[78]

The United States applied for observer status in the SCO, but was promptly rejected in 2005.[79]

At the Astana summit in July 2005, with the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq foreshadowing an indefinite presence of U.S. forces in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, the SCO requested the U.S. to set a clear timetable for withdrawing its troops from SCO member states. Shortly afterwards, Uzbekistan requested the U.S. to leave the K2 air base.[80]

The SCO has made no direct comments against the U.S. or its military presence in the region; however, some indirect statements at the past summits have been viewed by the western media as "thinly veiled swipes at Washington".[81]

Geopolitical aspects of the SCO[edit]

SCO summit in Ufa, Russia in 2015

There have been many discussions and commentaries about the geopolitical nature of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. Matthew Brummer, in the Journal of International Affairs, tracks the implications of SCO expansion into the Persian Gulf.[82]

Iranian writer Hamid Golpira had this to say on the topic: "According to Zbigniew Brzezinski's theory, control of the Eurasianlandmass is the key to global domination and control of Central Asia is the key to control of the Eurasian landmass....Russia and China have been paying attention to Brzezinski's theory, since they formed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation in 2001, ostensibly to curb extremism in the region and enhance border security, but most probably with the real objective of counterbalancing the activities of the United States and NATO in Central Asia".[83][84]

At a 2005 summit in Kazakhstan the SCO issued a Declaration of Heads of Member States of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation which addressed their "concerns" and contained an elaboration of the organisation's principles. It included: "The heads of the member states point out that, against the backdrop of a contradictory process of globalisation, multilateral cooperation, which is based on the principles of equal right and mutual respect, non-intervention in internal affairs of sovereign states, non-confrontational way of thinking and consecutive movement towards democratisation of international relations, contributes to overall peace and security, and call upon the international community, irrespective of its differences in ideology and social structure, to form a new concept of security based on mutual trust, mutual benefit, equality and interaction."[85]

In November 2005 Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov reiterated that the "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is working to establish a rational and just world order" and that "The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation provides us with a unique opportunity to take part in the process of forming a fundamentally new model of geopolitical integration".[86]

The People's Daily expressed the matter in these terms: "The Declaration points out that the SCO member countries have the ability and responsibility to safeguard the security of the Central Asian region, and calls on Western countries to leave Central Asia. That is the most noticeable signal given by the Summit to the world".[87]

A 2010 analysis in American Legion Magazine said that 'Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao... has concluded that the United States is maneuvering "to preserve its status as the world's sole superpower and will not allow any country the chance to pose a challenge to it."'[88]

An article in The Washington Post in early 2008 reported that President Vladimir Putin stated that Russia could aim nuclear missiles at Ukraine if Russia's neighbor and former fraternal republic in the Soviet Union joins the NATO alliance and hosts elements of a U.S. missile defence system. "It is horrible to say and even horrible to think that, in response to the deployment of such facilities in Ukrainian territory, which cannot theoretically be ruled out, Russia could target its missile systems at Ukraine", Putin said at a joint news conference with Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko, who was visiting the Kremlin. "Imagine this just for a second".[89][90]

See also[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]